UPSC CSE Prelims
Religious Movements Previous Year Questions (PYQs)
Showing solved Previous Year Questions for Chapter: Religious Movements
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Among the four main forms of existence of life recognized in Jainism, which one of the following is not included ?
Detailed Explanation:
In Jainism, every soul moves through the cycle of birth and rebirth (Samsara) based on its karma. The religion recognizes four main forms of existence (Four Gatis):
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Deva Gati – Gods/Heavenly beings
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Manushya Gati – Humans
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Tiryancha Gati – Animals, plants, and other non-human beings
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Naraki Gati – Hell beings
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Yaksha is not one of the Four Gatis.
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Yakshas are considered attendant deities (Shasan Devatas) and are classified under Vyantar Devas, a sub-category of celestial beings.
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Therefore, Option B is the correct answer.
Why Other Options Are Wrong
| Option | Why Not Correct? |
|---|---|
| Deva (gods) | One of the four Gatis. |
| Manushya (humans) | One of the four Gatis and the only path to Moksha. |
| Tiryancha (animals and plants) | One of the four Gatis. |
| Yaksha (demi-gods) | Not a primary Gati; classified under celestial attendants. ✅ |
Four Gatis in Jainism
| Gati | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Deva Gati | Heavenly beings / Gods |
| Manushya Gati | Humans |
| Tiryancha Gati | Animals, plants, insects, microorganisms |
| Naraki Gati | Hell beings |
Important Facts
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Manushya Gati is considered the most important because Moksha (Liberation) can be attained only from human birth.
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The soul continuously moves through these Gatis according to its karma.
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Jainism emphasizes Ahimsa (non-violence) because all living beings possess a soul.
What does an empty seat represent in early Buddhist iconography ?
Detailed Explanation:
In the early phase of Buddhist art, the Buddha was not shown in human form. Instead, different symbols were used to represent important events of his life.
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Empty Seat (Vajrasana/Bodhimanda) represents the Meditation of the Buddha and the place where he attained Enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya.
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Wheel (Dharmachakra) represents the First Sermon at Sarnath.
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Stupa represents the Mahaparinibbana (final liberation).
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Riderless Horse represents the Mahabhinishkramana (Great Renunciation).
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Therefore, Option A is the correct answer.
Why Other Options Are Wrong
| Option | Actual Symbol |
|---|---|
| The Buddha's First Sermon | Dharmachakra (Wheel) |
| The Buddha's Mahaparinibbana | Stupa |
| The Buddha's Mahabhinishkramana | Riderless Horse (Kanthaka) |
| The Meditation of the Buddha | Empty Seat (Vajrasana) ✅ |
With reference to ancient India, Gautama Buddha was generally known by which of the following epithets?
- Nayaputta
- Shakyamuni
- Tathagata
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Detailed Explanation:
Answer: Option 2 — 2 and 3 only
Gautama Buddha was commonly known by several epithets that reflected his origins and spiritual attainment. Shakyamuni means 'Sage of the Shakya clan' (his birth clan), and Tathagata means 'one who has thus gone/come' (signifying his enlightenment). However, Nayaputta (son of Naya) was an epithet used for Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, not for Buddha.
❌ Statement 1 – Incorrect: Nayaputta was an epithet of Mahavira (founder of Jainism), not Gautama Buddha.
✅ Statement 2 – Correct: Shakyamuni means 'Sage of the Shakya clan' and was a common epithet for Buddha who belonged to the Shakya clan.
✅ Statement 3 – Correct: Tathagata, meaning 'one who has thus gone/come', is one of the most important epithets of Buddha signifying his enlightenment.
📝 Short Notes: Epithets and Titles of Gautama Buddha
- Shakyamuni: Sage of the Shakya clan; refers to his birth in the Shakya republic
- Tathagata: 'Thus-gone' or 'Thus-come'; signifies one who has achieved enlightenment and describes the nature of a Buddha
- Buddha: 'The Awakened One' or 'The Enlightened One'
- Siddhartha Gautama: His birth name; Siddhartha means 'one who has accomplished his goals'
- Bhagavan/Bhagavat: 'The Blessed One' or 'Lord'
- Sugata: 'Well-gone' or 'Well-spoken'
- Jina: 'The Conqueror' (of desires and ignorance)
- Note: Nayaputta (son of Naya) and Mahavira (Great Hero) were epithets of Vardhamana, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism
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"Souls are not only the property of animal and plant life, but also of rocks, running water and many other natural objects not looked on as living by other religious sects." The above statement reflects one of the core beliefs of which one of the following religious sects of ancient India?
Detailed Explanation:
Answer: Option 2 — Jainism
The statement reflects the fundamental Jain doctrine that the entire cosmos is alive. According to Jain philosophy, souls (Jivas) are not restricted to humans, animals, and plants but are also present in elements like rocks (earth), running water, air, and fire. These are categorized as Sthavara Jivas (immobile living beings) or Ekendriya (one-sensed beings). This ontological belief is the foundation for the rigorous practice of Ahimsa (non-violence) in Jainism, as harming any natural element is considered harming a living soul.
📝 Short Notes: Jain Doctrine of Soul (Jiva)
- Jiva (Soul): Jainism believes that souls exist in all forms of matter—living and non-living by conventional standards.
- Classification of Jivas: Divided into two main categories: Sthavara (immobile) and Trasa (mobile).
- Ekendriya (One-sensed beings): Includes earth-bodied, water-bodied, fire-bodied, air-bodied, and plant-bodied beings—all possessing the sense of touch only.
- Multi-sensed beings: Range from two-sensed (worms) to five-sensed beings (humans, animals) with progressively more senses.
- Ahimsa (Non-violence): This belief in universal souls makes Jainism the most rigorous religion in practicing non-violence, avoiding harm to even the smallest elements.
- Anekantavada: The doctrine of non-absolutism or multiplicity of viewpoints—recognizes that truth has many aspects and no single viewpoint is complete.
- Difference from other religions: Buddhism, Shaivism, and Vaishnavism do not attribute souls to inanimate natural objects like rocks and water.
With reference to the cultural history of India, which one of the following is the correct description of the term paramitas?
Detailed Explanation:
Answer: Option 3 — Perfections whose attainment led to the Bodhisattva path
The term 'paramitas' in Buddhist philosophy refers to the transcendent virtues or perfections that must be cultivated by Bodhisattvas on their path to enlightenment. In Mahayana Buddhism, these perfections typically include six virtues: generosity (dana), moral conduct (sila), patience (kshanti), diligence (virya), meditation (dhyana), and wisdom (prajna). The practice and perfection of these virtues enable Bodhisattvas to progress toward Buddhahood while helping others achieve liberation from suffering.
📝 Short Notes: Paramitas in Buddhism
- Paramitas (Perfections): Transcendent virtues practiced in Mahayana Buddhism to attain enlightenment and Bodhisattva status.
- Six Traditional Paramitas: (1) Dana (Generosity), (2) Sila (Moral Conduct/Ethics), (3) Kshanti (Patience/Forbearance), (4) Virya (Energy/Diligence), (5) Dhyana (Meditation/Concentration), (6) Prajna (Wisdom/Insight).
- Extended List: Some texts mention ten paramitas, adding Upaya (Skillful Means), Pranidhana (Vow/Resolution), Bala (Spiritual Power), and Jnana (Knowledge).
- Bodhisattva Path: A Bodhisattva is one who seeks enlightenment not just for themselves but to help all sentient beings; paramitas are essential practices on this path.
- Mahayana Tradition: The concept of paramitas is central to Mahayana Buddhism and distinguishes it from Theravada tradition in its emphasis on the Bodhisattva ideal.
With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements:
- Sthaviravadins belong to Mahayana Buddhism.
- Lokottaravadin sect was an offshoot of Mahasanghika sect of Buddhism
- The deification of Buddha by Mahasanghikas fostered the Mahayana Buddhism.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Detailed Explanation:
Answer: Option 2 — 2 and 3 only
This question tests knowledge of early Buddhist sectarian developments that led to the emergence of Mahayana Buddhism. The Mahasanghika sect played a crucial role in the evolution of Mahayana through its liberal doctrinal approach and deification of Buddha.
❌ Statement 1 – Incorrect: Sthaviravadins (Theravadins) belong to Theravada Buddhism, not Mahayana Buddhism. They represent the conservative orthodox school that emphasized strict adherence to monastic discipline and original teachings.
✅ Statement 2 – Correct: The Lokottaravadin sect was indeed an offshoot of the Mahasanghika school. The term 'Lokottaravada' means 'transcendentalist doctrine,' believing that Buddha was supramundane (lokottara) and not bound by worldly laws.
✅ Statement 3 – Correct: The Mahasanghikas' progressive views, including the deification and transcendental nature of Buddha, directly contributed to the doctrinal foundation of Mahayana Buddhism, which emphasized the Bodhisattva ideal and multiple Buddhas.
📝 Short Notes: Early Buddhist Schools and Mahayana Development
| Aspect | Sthaviravadins (Theravada) | Mahasanghikas |
|---|---|---|
| Meaning | 'Doctrine of Elders' | 'Great Assembly' |
| Nature | Conservative, orthodox | Liberal, progressive |
| View of Buddha | Human teacher who attained enlightenment | Transcendental, supramundane being |
| Monastic Rules | Strict adherence to Vinaya | More flexible interpretation |
| Contribution | Preserved early teachings; led to Theravada | Doctrinal innovations; fostered Mahayana |
| Key Offshoots | Various Theravada schools | Lokottaravadins, Prajñaptivadins |
- First Buddhist Council (483 BCE): Held at Rajagriha after Buddha's death; compiled teachings but seeds of disagreement emerged.
- Second Buddhist Council (383 BCE): Held at Vaishali; major split between Sthaviravadins and Mahasanghikas over monastic discipline.
- Lokottaravadins: Believed Buddha possessed infinite powers, infinite lifespan, and was never truly bound by physical limitations.
- Mahayana Evolution: Emerged around 1st century BCE-CE, building on Mahasanghika concepts of Buddha's transcendence, multiple Buddhas, and the Bodhisattva path.
- Theravada Today: Survives in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos as the only surviving school of early Buddhism.
With reference to the cultural history of India, consider the following pairs:
- Parivrajaka — Renunciant and Wanderer
- Shramana — Priest with a high status
- Upasaka — Lay follower of Buddhism
Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
Detailed Explanation:
Answer: Option 2 — 1 and 3 only
This question tests knowledge of ancient Indian religious and cultural terminology. Pair 1 and Pair 3 are correctly matched, while Pair 2 incorrectly describes Shramanas as high-status priests, whereas they were actually ascetic practitioners who rejected Brahmanical orthodoxy.
✅ Pair 1 – Correct: Parivrajaka literally means 'wanderer' and refers to renunciants who abandoned worldly life to travel and pursue spiritual knowledge.
❌ Pair 2 – Incorrect: Shramana means 'one who strives' and refers to ascetic traditions (Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivika) that opposed the Vedic priestly hierarchy, not priests with high status.
✅ Pair 3 – Correct: Upasaka refers to lay followers of Buddhism who practiced the faith without joining the monastic Sangha.
📝 Short Notes: Ancient Indian Religious Terminology
| Term | Meaning | Context |
|---|---|---|
| Parivrajaka | Wandering ascetic/renunciant | Religious mendicants who renounced worldly life and traveled for spiritual purposes |
| Shramana | One who strives/performs austerities | Ascetic traditions (Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivika) that rejected Vedic ritualism and caste hierarchy |
| Upasaka (male) / Upasika (female) | Lay follower | Non-monastic followers of Buddhism and Jainism who observed basic precepts |
| Bhikshu (male) / Bhikshuni (female) | Monk/Nun | Members of the Buddhist monastic Sangha who took full ordination |
| Brahmana | Vedic priest | High-caste priests who performed Vedic rituals and sacrifices |
Consider the following:
- Deification of the Buddha
- Treading the path of Bodhisattvas
- Image worship and rituals
Which of the above is/are the feature/features of Mahayana Buddhism?
Detailed Explanation:
Answer: Option 4 — 1, 2 and 3
All three statements are defining features of Mahayana Buddhism, which emerged as a liberal and reform movement emphasizing universal salvation and compassionate Bodhisattvas.
✅ Statement 1 – Correct: Mahayana Buddhism deified the Buddha, portraying him as a transcendent, cosmic being with multiple manifestations, unlike Theravada's historical human Buddha.
✅ Statement 2 – Correct: The Bodhisattva ideal is central to Mahayana, where enlightened beings postpone their own nirvana to help all sentient beings achieve liberation.
✅ Statement 3 – Correct: Mahayana introduced elaborate image worship, rituals, and devotional practices centered around Buddha and Bodhisattva statues, making Buddhism more accessible to lay followers.
📝 Short Notes: Mahayana vs Theravada Buddhism
| Feature | Mahayana Buddhism | Theravada Buddhism |
|---|---|---|
| Meaning | Greater Vehicle | Way of the Elders |
| Buddha's Nature | Transcendent, divine being with multiple forms | Historical human teacher who attained enlightenment |
| Goal | Universal salvation for all beings | Individual enlightenment (Arhat) |
| Ideal | Bodhisattva path (compassion for all) | Arhat path (personal liberation) |
| Worship | Elaborate rituals, image worship, devotional practices | Meditation-focused, minimal rituals |
| Scriptures | Expanded canon including sutras like Lotus Sutra | Pali Canon (Tipitaka) |
| Geographic Spread | Tibet, China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia | Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia |
Which of the following Kingdoms were associated with the life of the Buddha?
- Avanti
- Gandhara
- Kosala
- Magadha
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Detailed Explanation:
❌ Statement 1 – Incorrect: Avanti was ruled by King Pradyota, a contemporary of Buddha, but Buddha never personally visited Avanti; he sent his disciple Mahakaccana to preach there.
❌ Statement 2 – Incorrect: Gandhara was located in the far northwest (modern Pakistan-Afghanistan); Buddha's life and teachings were confined to the middle Gangetic plains, and he never traveled to Gandhara.
✅ Statement 3 – Correct: Kosala was central to Buddha's life; he spent significant time in its capital Shravasti, preaching at Jetavana monastery, and his birthplace Lumbini was in Kosalan territory.
✅ Statement 4 – Correct: Magadha was intimately associated with Buddha's life; he attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, frequently preached at Rajgir (capital), and received patronage from Kings Bimbisara and Ajatashatru.