UPSC CSE Prelims
Medieval History Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Detailed Explanation:

✅ Mahendravarman I was a famous Pallava ruler known for his contributions to art, architecture, and literature.

He assumed the titles ‘Mattavilasa’, ‘Vichitrachitta’, and ‘Gunabhara’ (Gunabharata), which reflected his creative personality and intellectual interests. He also wrote the Sanskrit play Mattavilasa Prahasana.

Why other options are wrong:

📝 Short Notes: Mahendravarman I

Key Fact:
Mahendravarman I initiated the rock-cut temple architecture tradition in South India, which was later expanded by the Pallavas.

Detailed Explanation:

Correct Answer: ✅ Krishnadevaraya

Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara Empire maintained cordial relations with the Portuguese. In 1510, he permitted the Portuguese governor Alfonso de Albuquerque to build a fort at Bhatkal on the western coast. This strengthened trade relations between the Vijayanagara Empire and the Portuguese.

✅ Krishnadevaraya is Correct: He allowed the Portuguese to construct a fort at Bhatkal to promote trade and strategic cooperation.

❌ Narasimha Saluva is Incorrect: His reign preceded the period of significant Portuguese political influence in India.

❌ Muhammad Shah III is Incorrect: He ruled before the arrival of the Portuguese in India (1498).

❌ Yusuf Adil Shah is Incorrect: He had hostile relations with the Portuguese, especially regarding Goa.

Short Notes: Vijayanagara Empire and the Portuguese

• Vasco da Gama reached India in 1498 at Calicut.

• Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529) was the greatest ruler of the Tuluva Dynasty.

• Portuguese governor Alfonso de Albuquerque captured Goa in 1510.

• Bhatkal was an important port on the Karnataka coast.

• Vijayanagara imported horses, firearms, and luxury goods through Portuguese traders.

• Krishnadevaraya wrote the Telugu work Amuktamalyada.

• The empire reached its peak during Krishnadevaraya's reign.

• The Battle of Talikota (1565) led to the decline of Vijayanagara.

Detailed Explanation:

Answer: Option 4 — None

None of the listed dynasties established their kingdoms in the early eighth century AD (701-800 AD). The Hoysala dynasty was founded around 1006 AD, the Gahadavala dynasty around 1089 AD, the Kakatiya dynasty gained prominence around 1163 AD (though they existed as feudatories earlier around 1000 AD), and the Yadava dynasty was established around 850 AD. Even the earliest among these (Yadavas) falls outside the early eighth-century timeframe.

📝 Short Notes: Major Medieval Indian Dynasties Timeline

Early Eighth Century Context:
During the early eighth century AD, the major powers in India were:

• Pala Dynasty – Established around 750 AD in Bengal and Bihar by Gopala
• Pratihara Dynasty – Rose to prominence in the 8th century in Malwa and Rajasthan
• Rashtrakuta Dynasty – Established around 753 AD in Deccan by Dantidurga

These three dynasties engaged in the famous Tripartite Struggle for control over Kannauj during the 8th-10th centuries.

Detailed Explanation:

Answer: Option 3 — Bahadur Shah

Sultan Bahadur Shah of Gujarat surrendered Diu to the Portuguese in 1535 in exchange for Portuguese military assistance against the Mughal emperor Humayun. This strategic port city on the western coast became a significant Portuguese trading and military outpost, marking an important phase in European colonial expansion in India.

📝 Short Notes: Portuguese in Gujarat

• Bahadur Shah (1526–1537): The last significant independent Sultan of Gujarat who faced Mughal pressure from Humayun.
• Treaty of Bassein (1534): Bahadur Shah agreed to cede Bassein to the Portuguese in exchange for military support against the Mughals.
• Surrender of Diu (1535): Bahadur Shah surrendered Diu to the Portuguese to secure naval and military assistance against Humayun's expanding Mughal empire.
• Portuguese Strategy: The Portuguese aimed to control strategic ports along India's western coast to dominate maritime trade routes.
• Death of Bahadur Shah (1537): He died under mysterious circumstances during negotiations with the Portuguese, possibly assassinated aboard a Portuguese ship.
• Portuguese Control: Diu remained under Portuguese control until 1961, when it was annexed by India along with Goa and Daman.

Detailed Explanation:

Answer: Option 1 — Devaraya I

Devaraya I (r. 1406-1422 CE) of the Vijayanagara Empire constructed a large dam/barrage across the Tungabhadra River around 1410 CE and commissioned a 24 km long canal-cum-aqueduct to bring water to the capital city of Vijayanagara. This monumental irrigation project brought immense prosperity to the kingdom, as documented by Portuguese traveler Fernão Nunes (Nuniz), who provided detailed accounts of Devaraya I's infrastructure projects. These hydraulic works stand as a testament to the advanced engineering capabilities of the Vijayanagara Empire.

📝 Short Notes: Vijayanagara Empire - Major Rulers and Contributions

Detailed Explanation:

Answer: Option 2 — Only two pairs

This question tests the knowledge of Indian medieval dynasties and their rulers. Out of the four pairs given, only Pair 1 (Nannuka-Chandela) and Pair 3 (Nagabhata II-Gurjara-Pratihara) are correctly matched, while Pairs 2 and 4 have incorrect dynasty associations.

✅ Pair 1 – Correct: Nannuka was the founder of the Chandela dynasty in the 9th century CE, which ruled over the Bundelkhand region.
❌ Pair 2 – Incorrect: Jayashakti belonged to the Chandela dynasty (he was the son of Kirtivarman), not the Paramara dynasty.
✅ Pair 3 – Correct: Nagabhata II (circa 805-833 CE) was a prominent ruler of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty who successfully defended against Arab invasions.
❌ Pair 4 – Incorrect: Bhoja (circa 1010-1055 CE) was the most illustrious ruler of the Paramara dynasty of Malwa, not the Rashtrakuta dynasty.

📝 Short Notes: Major Medieval Indian Dynasties

Detailed Explanation:

Answer: Option 2 — Coins

The term "Fanam" in medieval India referred to a gold or silver coin that was widely used in South India, particularly in regions like the Vijayanagara Empire, the Nayakas of Madurai, and various Deccan states. It was a small denomination currency used extensively in trade and commerce from the medieval period until the 19th century.

📝 Short Notes: Medieval Indian Coinage

• Fanam: A gold/silver coin primarily used in South India (Vijayanagara Empire, Madurai Nayakas, Travancore, Mysore); continued until British period in some regions
• Tanka: Silver coin introduced by Iltutmish of Delhi Sultanate; became standard currency in North India
• Jital: Copper coin used during Delhi Sultanate period for smaller transactions
• Hun: Small copper coin used in various regional kingdoms; 1 Tanka = 48 Jitals or multiple Huns
• Pagoda (Varaha): Gold coin of South India, especially Vijayanagara Empire; featured Hindu deities
• Rupiya: Silver coin introduced by Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545); standardized by Akbar; became foundation of modern rupee

Detailed Explanation:

Answer: Option 2 — 2 only

This question tests knowledge of Mongol invasions during the Delhi Sultanate period. Only Statement 2 is correct, as the Mongol siege of Delhi in 1303 CE occurred during Ala-ud-din Khalji's reign, while the other statements contain factual errors regarding the timeline and rulers.

❌ Statement 1 – Incorrect: The first Mongol invasion of India occurred in 1221 CE under Genghis Khan during the reign of Iltutmish (1211-1236 CE), not Jalal-ud-din Khalji (1290-1296 CE).

✅ Statement 2 – Correct: In 1303 CE, during Ala-ud-din Khalji's reign (1296-1316 CE), a massive Mongol army led by Targhi besieged Delhi, forcing the Sultan to take refuge in Siri Fort for several months.

❌ Statement 3 – Incorrect: Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (1325-1351 CE) successfully repelled Mongol invasions early in his reign and never lost northwestern territories to them; instead, he even planned an ambitious Khurasan expedition against Mongol territories.

📝 Short Notes: Mongol Invasions of India (13th-14th Century)

• Ala-ud-din Khalji's Counter-Measures: Built Siri Fort, maintained large standing army of 4,75,000 cavalry, appointed Ghazi Malik (later Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq) as frontier governor
• Impact: Mongol threat shaped Delhi Sultanate's military policies, fortification strategies, and economic reforms (especially Ala-ud-din's price control and military reforms)
• Settlements: Some Mongol groups were converted and settled in India (called 'New Muslims' or Neo-Muslims), though Ala-ud-din later massacred many due to rebellion fears

Detailed Explanation:

Answer: Option 4 — Sayyids

The Sayyids were revered in Muslim society as descendants of Prophet Muhammad through his daughter Fatima. During the Delhi Sultanate period, they wore a distinctive pointed cap called 'kulah', earning them the title 'KulahDaran' (cap-wearers). Even during Timur's devastating invasion of India in 1398, he specifically spared the lives of Sayyids despite his general policy of massacre, demonstrating their special status in Islamic society.

📝 Short Notes: Social Classes in Delhi Sultanate

• Sayyids (KulahDaran): Claimed descent from Prophet Muhammad through Fatima; wore pointed caps (kulah); enjoyed special privileges and respect; protected even during Timur's invasion
• Shaikhs: Arab Muslims and their descendants who settled in India; considered high in social hierarchy
• Qalandars: Muslim mendicant mystics who rejected conventional religious practices; often wandering ascetics
• Ulema: Islamic scholars and religious leaders who interpreted Sharia law
• Khuddams: Turkish nobles who formed the ruling elite in early Delhi Sultanate
• Social Hierarchy: Sayyids and Shaikhs → Foreign Muslims (Turks, Afghans, Persians) → Indian Muslims (converts) → Non-Muslims

Detailed Explanation:

Answer: Option 1 — Akbar

Nizamuddin Panipati, a Persian scholar, translated the "Yogavasistha" into Persian during the reign of Emperor Akbar (1556-1605). This translation was part of Akbar's ambitious cultural policy to promote the translation of Sanskrit classics into Persian, the administrative language of the Mughal Empire. Akbar's court witnessed the translation of numerous works including the Mahabharata (as Razmnama), Ramayana, and various other religious and philosophical texts to facilitate intellectual exchange and religious harmony.

📝 Short Notes: Translations during Akbar's Reign

• Maktab Khana (Translation Bureau): Established by Akbar to translate Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek, and other works into Persian.
• Yogavasistha: A philosophical text in the form of a dialogue between Sage Vasistha and Prince Rama, translated by Nizamuddin Panipati.
• Razmnama: Persian translation of the Mahabharata completed in 1589, with contributions from scholars like Badauni and Faizi.
• Ramayana: Translated into Persian as "Ramayana" under Akbar's patronage.
• Atharva Veda: Translated by Haji Ibrahim Sirhindi.
• Akbar's Vision: These translations reflected his policy of Sulh-i-Kul (universal peace) and intellectual syncretism.

Detailed Explanation:

Answer: Option 1 — The best means of salvation was devotion.

Ramanuja (11th-12th century CE) was a prominent Vaishnavite philosopher who propounded the philosophy of Vishishtadvaita (Qualified Non-dualism). His central teaching emphasized that salvation (moksha) is best achieved through intense devotion (bhakti) to a personal God (Vishnu/Narayana) and divine grace, rather than through mere knowledge or ritualistic practices.

✅ Option 1 – Correct: Ramanuja's core teaching was that bhakti (devotion) is the supreme path to salvation, complemented by God's grace.

❌ Option 2 – Incorrect: While Ramanuja respected the Vedas, this statement more accurately reflects the views of Mimamsa school or orthodox Vedic philosophy, not Ramanuja's distinctive teaching.

❌ Option 3 – Incorrect: Emphasis on logical arguments as essential means for the highest bliss is characteristic of the Nyaya school of philosophy, not Ramanuja's bhakti-centered approach.

❌ Option 4 – Incorrect: Meditation as the primary means of salvation is more aligned with Patanjali's Yoga philosophy or Advaita Vedanta of Shankara, not Ramanuja's devotional path.

📝 Short Notes: Ramanuja and Vishishtadvaita Philosophy

• Period: 11th-12th century CE (1017-1137 CE approximately)
• Philosophy: Vishishtadvaita (Qualified Non-dualism) - Individual souls and the world are real and are attributes of Brahman, but remain distinct
• Core Teaching: Bhakti (devotion) to a personal God (Vishnu) as the supreme path to moksha
• Concept of God: Personal God (Saguna Brahman) - Vishnu/Narayana with qualities, both transcendent and immanent
• Path to Salvation: Prapatti (self-surrender) and Bhakti (devotion), aided by God's grace (prasada)
• Key Works: Sri Bhashya (commentary on Brahma Sutras), Gita Bhashya, Vedartha Sangraha
• Influence: Inspired the Bhakti movement in South India; promoted social equality and temple worship accessibility
• Contrast with Shankara: Unlike Shankara's Advaita (absolute non-dualism with nirguna Brahman), Ramanuja accepted the reality of individual souls and the material world as real attributes of God

Detailed Explanation:

Answer: Option 4 — 1, 2, 3 and 4

According to the Portuguese chronicler Fernão Nuniz, who visited the Vijayanagara Empire during the reign of Krishnadevaraya, women in the royal household were trained and employed in diverse professional roles. His accounts specifically mention their expertise in wrestling, astrology, accounting, and soothsaying, highlighting the progressive attitude towards women's education and professional engagement in the empire.

✅ Statement 1 – Correct: Women were skilled in wrestling and martial arts, serving as guards and warriors in the royal palace.
✅ Statement 2 – Correct: Women practiced astrology and were employed as astrologers in the royal court.
✅ Statement 3 – Correct: Women were trained in accounting and managed financial records in the palace administration.
✅ Statement 4 – Correct: Women practiced soothsaying (divination) and fortune-telling at the royal court.

📝 Short Notes: Women in Vijayanagara Empire

• Foreign Accounts: Portuguese travelers like Domingo Paes, Fernão Nuniz, and Italian Niccolò de' Conti provided detailed accounts of women's status in Vijayanagara.
• Royal Employment: Women served in various professional capacities in the royal household including guards, wrestlers, accountants, astrologers, musicians, and dancers.
• Literary Patronage: Krishnadevaraya patronized female poets and writers; several women contributed to Telugu and Sanskrit literature during this period.
• Military Roles: Women were trained in martial arts and archery; some served as bodyguards to queens and royal women.
• Economic Independence: Women engaged in trade, owned property, and had inheritance rights, showing their economic agency.
• Social Status: Despite progressive roles in certain areas, practices like Sati and restrictions on widow remarriage also existed in the empire.

Detailed Explanation:

Answer: Option 1 — Paragana- Sarkar- Suba

The administrative divisions in medieval India, particularly during the Mughal period, were organized hierarchically with Pargana being the smallest unit comprising a group of villages, Sarkar as a mid-level division (district) formed by grouping several Parganas, and Suba as the largest provincial division encompassing multiple Sarkars. This ascending order of Pargana → Sarkar → Suba reflects the administrative structure from the grassroots village cluster level to the provincial level.

📝 Short Notes: Mughal Administrative Divisions

• Revenue Administration: At the Pargana level, the key officials were Shiqdar (law and order), Amin (land revenue assessment), and Munsif (records and accounts).
• Provincial Governance: Each Suba was headed by a Subedar/Sipahsalar (governor) who was responsible for military and civil administration.
• Financial Control: The Diwan (finance minister) at the Suba level managed revenue collection and financial matters independently of the Subedar to ensure checks and balances.

Detailed Explanation:

Answer: Option 1 — 1 only

This question tests the chronological accuracy of three historical events and their associated rulers. Only the first statement correctly matches the event with the ruler's reign, while the other two contain factual errors regarding either the ruler or the timeline.

✅ Statement 1 – Correct: In 1221, Genghis Khan reached the Indus pursuing Jalal-ad-Din Mangburni, the Khwarazmian prince, during Iltutmish's reign. Iltutmish wisely refused asylum, avoiding a Mongol invasion of the Delhi Sultanate.

❌ Statement 2 – Incorrect: Timur invaded India in 1398 during the reign of Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughlaq (last Tughlaq ruler), not Muhammad bin Tughluq who died in 1351. Timur's grandson Pir Muhammad occupied Multan before Timur crossed the Indus.

❌ Statement 3 – Incorrect: Vasco da Gama reached Calicut in 1498 during the reign of Immadi Narasimha Raya of the Saluva Dynasty. Deva Raya II of the Sangama Dynasty ruled from 1422-1446, more than 50 years before the Portuguese arrival.

📝 Short Notes: Medieval Indian Rulers and Key Events

Detailed Explanation:

Answer: Option 2 — 2 Only

This question tests knowledge about the emergence of various provincial kingdoms in Indian history. Only statement 2 is correct, as the Mysore Kingdom indeed emerged from the Vijayanagara Empire after its fall in 1565.

❌ Statement 1 – Incorrect: The Nizamat of Arcot (Carnatic) was established by Aurangzeb as a subdivision under the Deccan Subedar. While it was administratively under the Nizam of Hyderabad, it did not emerge out of Hyderabad State; rather, both were Mughal administrative units.

✅ Statement 2 – Correct: The Mysore Kingdom emerged from the Vijayanagara Empire. After the Battle of Talikota (1565), the Wodeyar dynasty, which had been subordinate chiefs under Vijayanagara, established their independent kingdom at Mysore.

❌ Statement 3 – Incorrect: Rohilkhand Kingdom was formed by Rohilla Afghans who migrated to India in the 18th century. Ali Muhammad Khan established this kingdom by taking advantage of the power vacuum following Nadir Shah's invasion (1739), not from territories directly occupied by Ahmad Shah Durrani.

📝 Short Notes: Successor States of Mughal and Vijayanagara Empires